African history is incredibly rich and diverse. Within Africa, Ethiopia, formally known as Abyssinia, has one of the most documented histories of any nation on earth. For example, Ethiopia is one of the few nations that is mentioned in the Bible and other religious texts from around the world. From the time of Moses to the colonization of Africa, Ethiopia has maintained its sovereignty from outside influences to this very day. There are many events in Ethiopian history that are significant to African history as a whole, but the Battle of Adwa in March of 1896, stands out as one of the most important events in African history. To understand the impact Ethiopia had on African history, it is important to study King Menelik II of Shoa, the Treaty of Wichale, the Battle of Adwa, the Treaty of Addis Ababa.

            Prince Sahle Mariam, later known as King Menelik II of Shoa, was incredibly important to African history because during his reign, between 1889 to 1914, he unified Ethiopia into a nation and showed Europe that Africans were capable leading their nations. Prior to Menelik, Ethiopia was ruled by different leaders from the Abyssinian empire and no real centralized monarch existed. Through military operations and diplomatic endeavors, Menelik was able to obtain control over the Galla regions that surrounded Shoa, unifying much of Ethiopia. To facilitate this conquest, Menelik was eager to make alliances and arms trade with Europe. Prior to the Treaty of Wichale, Italy achieved other independent treaties with Menelik. These treaties aimed at providing relationships and economic benefits for both countries but intentionally forced Abyssinian leaders against each other. Menelik, however, saw this as “another vital avenue for securing much-needed arms and ammunition.”1 This was vital for Menelik continuing his conquest in the regions around Shoa, and over the course of a few years he became a powerful leader on the African continent at a time when the European powers were colonizing regions all over Africa. 

In 1889, the Treaty of Wichale was signed by Menelik and Italy. The most notable thing that came out of this treaty was it led to Menelik being formally recognized as the emperor of Ethiopia, but equally as important, it promised more arms and military equipment from Italy to Menelik to continue his conquest of expanding his empire. Furthermore, the treaty provided “financial and development assistance to Ethiopia”2 in exchange for land in Ethiopia for Italian pursuits. This meant that Menelik would gain more political and military power and Italy would begin colonization in Africa like their European counterparts. After a few years, the treaty fell apart when Menelik learned Italy was invading Ethiopian land through its bases in Eritrea and that the Italian version of the treaty contained language that forced Ethiopia to go through the Italians for diplomatic missions to Europe. Ethiopia had effectively become a protectorate of Italy. By 1893, Menelik informed the European powers it would not allow itself to be controlled by a foreign power and renounced the treaty with Italy. This was significant because a major African power was standing up to a European power. Menelik knew war with Italy was on the horizon and called to arms anyone in Ethiopia that could fight. The response to this call for war brought 100,000 Ethiopians to fight against Italy and defend their nation’s sovereignty.

On March 1, 1896, the Ethiopian military, consisting of roughly 70,000 strong, decimated the Italian army at the Battle of Adwa. Saheed Adejumobi, author of The History of Ethiopia, describes the battle as, “one of the worst colonial disasters of modern history.”3 This was an important milestone in African history because before the Italians were defeated, in comparison to the Battle of Adwa, no African power had given the European colonizers much of a struggle, let alone a massive military defeat. Additionally, the political earthquake that shook Europe caused the colonizers to reevaluate their colonizing policies and military tactics4. The disastrous defeat of the Italians by the so-called lesser people of Africa sent an incredible statement to the European powers: leave Ethiopia alone or succumb to the same fate as the Italians. This caused Ethiopia to be exempt from the colonial wars that ravaged the African continent in the nineteenth century5.  

After the Battle of Adwa, the Italians were ridiculed on the international stage by newspapers from all over the world. For example, on March 14, 1896, the New York Times, wrote a piece titled, “Abyssinian King Displays the Strength of His Army,” King Menelik showed Italian Major Salsa his 100,000 strong army as well as his stores of ammunition and weapons.6 And March 28, 1896, The Des Moines Register, recalls the Battle of Adwa with an article titled, “Army Was Badly Organized”, which General Ellena of Italy described that “no Italian army was ever so badly organized, fed, [or] disciplined.”7 This deeply ruined the reputation of Italy and its standing with its fellow European powers, that a nation from Africa could defeat a European power. This is important to African history because Europe had to come to terms with the fact that an African country was capable of leading itself without assistance from Europe. This point is reiterated by a British newspaper, The Guardian, in a July 1, 1897 article, in which it states, “The modern rulers of Abyssinia [Ethiopia] have long prided themselves on the fact that their nation is purely self-supporting, neither giving, nor needing anything from the outside.”8 In an attempt to repair not just Italy’s reputation but all of Europe, the colonial powers needed a way for Ethiopia to look different than the other African nations to explain why Ethiopia could fend off a European attack, so they chose to argue that the achievements of the country were due to the Ethiopians being superior to the rest of the peoples of Africa, but not as good as the white Europeans. 

After war with Italy ended, all the terms of the Treaty of Wichale were renounced and a new treaty between Italy and Ethiopia was drafted, the Peace Treaty of Addis Ababa. The terms included recognition of Ethiopia as an independent state which then led to diplomats from the French and British along with diplomats from the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and the Sudanese Mahdists to be sent to Ethiopia in hopes of signing their own treaties with Menelik. This is especially surprising considering that France and Briton were powerful colonizers in Africa at that time, and both countries saw Africans as lesser people and incapable of running their own countries. One of the most important effects of the Treaty of Addis Ababa was that it never allowed the colonization of Ethiopia by Italy thereby limiting Italian colonial rule to present day Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia. It must be noted though, the conquest of Ethiopia by the Italians later led to the occupation of Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 19359. It has been debated by historians whether the Italians ever colonized Ethiopia, or if Italians only occupied Ethiopia during the rule of the fascist regime under Mussolini. Nonetheless, after the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which the Treaty of Addis Ababa ended, the empire of Ethiopia was given the autonomy from the colonial powers of Europe. The autonomy that was granted to Ethiopia would serve as “a model of African resistance against colonial rule.”10 This is especially significant to African history because it showed other African tribes and countries that autonomy from Europe was possible. 

The rich and diverse history of Africa, with all the countries, tribes, and peoples that make up the continent, makes it difficult to pinpoint one specific event that is the most significant to the history of the entire continent. The Treaty of Wichale, the Battle of Adwa, and the Peace Treaty of Addis Ababa are three significant events in Ethiopian history that affected African history as a whole. As was examined, King Menelik II of Shoa rose to prominence in Ethiopian history through his military conquests and diplomatic missions across modern day Ethiopia with the objective of uniting the Abyssinian factions into one centralized monarch. His call to service in defense of his empire raised a gigantic army to fight and defeat the Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa. The defeat was a massive blow to the Italian government and reputation and ultimately led to the autonomy of Ethiopia until the 1930s. 

The act of defiance by an African power sent a powerful message to the world that Africa could lead herself and perhaps even revolt against the colonizers. The act of rebellion led the colonial powers to rethink their colonial strategies and possibly even more hardship to the colonized people of Africa. For years to come, other African nations could envision freedom from the colonial powers by the example they saw of Ethiopia. Because of this, they were able to create their own cultures and governance free of foreign influence. King Menelik II and his military forces forever changed Ethiopian, and African, history by winning one of the most important wars in African history. 

End Notes

1. Adejumobi, Saheed. The History of Ethiopia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007), 29.

2. Ibid, 29.

3. Ibid, 30.

4. Hannah Giorgis, “If We Want to Understand African History, We Need to Understand the Battle of Adwa,” March 11, 2015, https://qz.com/359857/ethiopias-battle-of-adwa-is-a-powerful-symbol-of-black-resistance/.

5. Adejumobi, Saheed. The History of Ethiopa (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007, 30.

6. “Abyssinian King Displays the Strength of His Army,” New York Times, March 14, 1896.

7. “Army Was Badly Disorganized,” Des Moines Register, March 28, 1896.

8. “An Unofficial Mission to Abyssinia,” The Manchester Guardian, July 1, 1897, 12.

9. Adejumobi, Saheed. The History of Ethiopia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007), 67.

10. Ibid, 44

Bibliography

“Abyssinian King Displays the Strength of His Army.” New York Times, March 14, 1896.

Adejumobi, Saheed A. The History of Ethiopia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006.

“Army Was Badly Disorganized.” Des Moines Register, March 28, 1896.

Giorgis, Hannah. “If We Want to Understand African History, We Need to Understand the Battle of Adwa,” March 11, 2015. https://qz.com/359857/ethiopias-battle-of-adwa-is-a-powerful-symbol-of-black-resistance/.

“An Unofficial Mission to Abyssinia.” The Manchester Guardian, July 1, 1897.